John Donne   (1572 – 1631)

He was a great poet who was recognized in the 20^th century and a founder of a school of poetry. He was born in a wealthy Catholic family; his father was a merchant and his mother a Catholic relative of Sir Thomas More. His mother's brother was imprisoned, for he held a Jesuit mission. (Jesuit pertains to Roman Catholic Church; a member of the Society of Jesus.) His brother was also accused of helping Catholics – giving refuge to a Catholic priest. Donne received Catholic education at home, and later, he was sent to Oxford and Cambridge, spending 3 years at the former and 3 years at the latter. But in spite of the fact that Donne was diligent, he received no degrees, for the Catholics were not allowed to attain an academic degree. Afterwards, he studied law in London. He studied law, languages and theology constantly. Meanwhile he had gentle women friends and was interested in theaters.

Donne's "Songs and Sonnets" are secular, dealing with eroticism and love. But the love that he and his followers wrote about is not gentle but a harsh masculine one with no allusion to mythology. The lover never sheds tears; he might die but never faints.

Gradually, Donne abandoned his Catholic beliefs and his faith in the Anglican Church. Then he started a tour around the continent. With Raleigh and Earl of Essex he made a naval expedition to Spain where he was acquainted with the son of         Sir Thomas Eagerton, a lord keeper. When he returned to England he was appointed as Eagerton's private secretary. But unfortunately, his whole life and position was ruined when he secretly married Lady Eagerton's niece, Anne More.  Donne was never forgiven; therefore, he was imprisoned and dismissed from his post. The following years were a period of misery and poverty for the couple; he was poor, sick and hopeless.

He wrote a book in approve of suicide: "Biathanatos". Then he started working with Bishop Morton in composing anti-Catholicism and after that he wrote in defense of Anglican Church: "Pseudo-Martyr". His book was read by King James I and was extremely approved. Being King James I's friend, Donne was persuaded by him to enter ministry. At first he refused but then he was ordained as the                          Dean of Saint Paul's. His sermons are quite famous.

In addition to his early secular "Songs and Sonnets", Donne composed a series of religious sonnets; "Holy Sonnets". After that, he wrote another book against Catholicism: "Ignatius His Conclave".

Donne's language is simple, yet his poetry is deliberately and extraordinarily complex. His poetry deals with different fields of knowledge. The interesting aspect of his poetry is his use of far-fetched metaphors. This is the reason he is accused of being metaphysical.

The characteristics of metaphysical poetry are as follows:

1. They include metaphysical conceits i.e. far-fetched metaphors.

2. They have dramatic style i.e. a person seems to be talking to someone rather than              

    the reader; it is conversational; a monologue.

3. They are in form of arguments as if the speaker is trying to reason or prove

    something.

4. They have simple language.

5. They are abrupt and sudden. With the very first line the poet tries to give a shock

    to the readers.

6. They have complexity of thoughts and ideas.

    A. They are non- Petrarchan; the lines are harsh, strong and masculine.

    B. The subject matters are drawn from different fields of knowledge either secular       

         or religious.

Izaak Walton   (1593 – 1683)

When Donne died  Sir Henry Watton, a friend of his decided to write his biography. He asked another mutual friend Izaac Walton to help him. But Sir Watton died soon and Walton wrote the biography himself under the title of "The Life of Dr. John Donne" – Donne was a doctor of divinity. The picture that Walton gives of Donne resembles a saint, for at that time Donne was outstanding for his sermons in which he used the same diction, conceits, passion and intellect.

Walton has another work: "The Complete Angler", concerning the art of fishing, but it is actually a philosophical book with poetry and quotations of great men.

Walton lived a long life so that he was contemporary with Queen Elizabeth up to the Restoration of Charles II.

Ben Johnson   (1572 – 1637)

He was born simultaneously with Donne and to the same extent; he had a great impact on the people of his age. Johnson was a(n) actor, playwright, poet, scholar, critic, sincerely brave but quarrelsome and tough with a sharp tongue. He was born one month after his father's death. After 2 years his mother married again and Ben's stepfather was very careful about his stepson's education and welfare.

Ben entered Westminster's school where the great scholar William Cadmon, to whom many of his works were devoted, was a teacher. After his school he entered the army and was sent to war and during one of them he killed a man. At the age of 20 he returned to London where he married, but none of his children outlived their father and Johnson wrote poetry in memory of them. In London, he worked as an actor and a playwright.

Once, he had a quarrel with a fellow actor and killed him in a duel. But Johnson was exempted from being punished by the aim of the Benefit of Clergy or the law for the Criminous Clericks, first established by Saint Thomas a Becket in the 12^th century. He proved he was able to read and write and appeared before a less severe court, spent a few years in prison and was eventually relieved. In prison, he changed his religion and became a Catholic. After 12 years he changed his religion once more and became an Anglican.

After the accession of James I, a new atmosphere came to the court i.e. a new court entertainment appeared called Masque.

Masque

It is a kind of poetic drama in which a great deal of music, songs, splendid costumes and decorations and legends from mythology are used. Masque was held either in court or in the great palaces of the nobles. The myth were performed in an elaborate form and sometimes the royal family even the king took part in it. It seemed to be quite amusing.

Ben Johnson major contribution is: "Comedy of Humours", that was a new form of comedy.

There was an ancient belief that 4 fluids exist within every human's body; determining his temperament: blood, choler, phlegm and melancholy. Blood is hot and moist in nature; choler is naturally hot and dry, phlegm is cold and moist and melancholy is cold and dry. According to this theory, there is no balance in the existence of these 4 humors within human's body i.e. one of them predominates the others. The predominance of choler thus results in an angry person; that of phlegm causes the person to become dull and sluggish; the predominance of melancholy makes the person depressed and that of blood makes him cheerful, good and humored. Ben Johnson portrays his characters imbalanced because of their unequal humors. All his characters are abnormal and funny in his "Comedy of Humours".

In addition to masque, satire, poetry of compliment and elegy were the other genres Johnson practiced.

At 35 he was given the honorary title of Poet Laureate by King James I. In the same year he published a book which was a collection of all his works. He was the first English poet to publish his own collection of works. In his later years he became the unofficial literary dictator of London and engaged the affection of younger followers who called themselves Sons of Ben. Sons of Ben provided the nucleus of the entire Cavalier School of English poets. (After Charles I's war with the parliament, his followers called themselves Cavaliers meaning nights or horsemen of the king).

Cavalier Poets were in opposition with the metaphysical poets. They were a group of courtier poets who dealt with urbanism, aristocracy and the elegance of the court in their poetry; opposite to metaphysical poetry which is harsh and tough. Besides, the Cavalier Poets did not pay much attention to composing sonnets as their leader Ben Johnson did not, either. The Cavalier Poets were Richard Lovelace, Thomas Carew, Sir John Suckling and Robert Herrick; the latter was not a courtier.

Ben Johnson's major works/plays are as following:

1. The Alchemist

2. Everyman in His Humour

3. Volpone

4. Cheron

5. The Silent Woman

6. The Devil is The Ass

7. Batalomew's Fair

George Herbert   (1593 – 1633)

A John Donne's follower, George Herbert was born in an ancient aristocratic and distinguished Welsh family. His father died when he was 3 years old, and he was brought up by his mother, Magdolen Herbert, a friend of Donne and an eminent lady; and when George was about 15 years of age his mother married  a man 20 years her junior. George had a great love for his mother.

He attended Cambridge University where he was a very distinguished student and after taking his degree, Herbert was elected Public Orator of the university. Public Orator was one who wrote letters and speeches on special occasions for the university. Public Orator of the university was carrying dignity and a stepping stone to a higher position. At first, Herbert seemed ambitious for high official posts. He was a member of the parliament for 2 years and had intentions to become an ambassador, yet military police disillusioned him so that he refused to hold any worldly status and decided to be ordained.

He took a minor office in a church in a remote village where he settled the rest of his life with his wife, his stepfather's cousin. As a priest he was always present at the beds of sick people, was backed by the poor and was a source of energy and charity for them. Accordingly, to the poor villagers Herbert was Holy Mr. Herbert. Meanwhile, he wrote poetry which was published after his death in one volume:   "The Temple".

George Herbert is a poet of profound religious belief and used poetry as a means of devotion and prayer. He was a metaphysical poet under the influence of Donne.   "The Temple" is a collection of poems, each having a title. In each poem he talks about different places inside the church e.g. the altar etc. and applies all these elements as metaphysical conceits and as a whole, his collection makes up a church/temple.

Andrew Marvell   (1621 – 1678)

He was a metaphysical poet, yet different from Donne and Herbert. He was the son of a Yorkshire Calvinist clergyman, born in the town of Hull. He attended Hull's grammar school then went to Cambridge. After graduating from the university he went on a tour around Europe for 4 years by the time the civil war started. When he returned to England he became a tutor to the daughter of Sir Thomas Fairfax, Lord General of the parliamentary forces. This way, he made a connection with the parliamentarian government. At the same time, Marvell had friends among the royalists. Afterwards, Marvell was appointed assistant to the blind Latin secretary for the Commonwealth, John Milton; and he seemed to have been responsible for saving Milton from imprisonment and possible execution after the Restoration - after Cromwell executed the king, he had to explain his deeds and ideals to other European courts; so he needed a Latin secretary to write to European courts in Latin and in favor of his government.

Marvell maintained as a member of the parliament to the end of his life. What is interesting about him is that nobody is sure about his political ideas. His ideas were vague and he always had a safe position.

Marvell's poetry seems light, playful and gay but the poet holds great philosophical ideas and profound thoughts. His famous poem "To His Coy Mistress" is a profound metaphysical one. On the surface, it is a bout a sexual love, but it really concerns time and mortality. His other poem is "An Oration Ode upon Cromwell Returning from England". It is an ode in praise of Cromwell on the surface; but the reader doubts whether he praises Cromwell or King Charles I.

Henry Vaughan   (1621 – 1695)

Vaughan was the last metaphysical poet, - John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew Marwell and Henry Vaughn - a physician and a native of Wales; he was born with his twin brother, Thomas, and the two were brought up in Wales. His career as a student at Oxford was interrupted by the civil war in which he took a brief part on the king's side. But after the royal defeat, he retired to his native Wales and began to practice medicine and got married. After a serious illness, a profound and enthusiastic religious belief dominated him. His poetry was influenced by George Herbert. He published a thin volume of poetry called: "Silex Scintilans" meaning "The Fiery Flint".

Although Vaughn was a religious poet, his treatment is not as tough as those of Donne and Herbert.

John Milton   (1608 – 1674)

Milton was born in a Protestant family whose father was a well-to-do real state man and quite careful about his son's education; and the son proved to be a great scholar. He received his BA and MA degrees from Cambridge and studied Latin, Greek and Italian.

 Milton's life falls conveniently into three divisions:

1.  The Period of Youthful Education and Apprenticeship.

This era culminates in the writing of "Lycidas" and Milton's foreign travels. His education was continued by 6 years of host studies i.e. he stayed in his father's house for 6 years when he read everything in English, Latin, Greek and Italian.

Afterwards, he traveled around the continent and spent mostly in Italy, where he was attracted by Italian literature. Meanwhile, the political problems took place inside the country, especially the Scottish war in which Milton was on the side of the parliament- he was a pure Puritan. The war was brought about by Charles's attempt to change the Presbyterian Church of Scotland into an Episcopal one.                Episcopal Church was the one with the hierarchy of bishops and Presbyterian was the one with no hierarchy i.e. Puritan and Protestant.

2. The Political Period

Milton became a Latin secretary of Cromwell and wrote pamphlets in Latin in which he advocated the ideas of parliamentarian reign and in defense of Charles' execution.

He married Mary Powell, of a royal family, though he was a parliamentarian himself. Thus, within 6 weeks, she returned to her parents' and Milton published a series of pamphlets, advocating that divorce should be granted on the ground of compatibility. But later on his wife returned to him and died after having born him 3 daughters. After a couple of years Milton married Katherine Woodcock who died at child birth two years later.

Little by little, he became blind and by the accession of Charles II he was to be executed. He was imprisoned but after a while he was released and was retired to his house and started a state of seclusion. He married his third wife who served him as a secretary.

3. The Period of Literary Career

All throughout his life Milton wanted to write an epic, yet he was too busy with politics to be able to attain his objective. His major works are:

I. "Lycidas"

It is a pastoral elegy written when Milton was still at university. Edward King was one of his friends at university who drowned. Scholars believe that "Lycidas" was dedicated to Edward. It is actually a consoling elegy with the theme that "A poet dies but never does a poem."; it was an elegy on a dead poet.

II. "Areopogitica"

It is a prose addressed to the parliament, concerning the freedom of writers and condemning censorship.

III. "L'Allegro"

     "Il' Penseroso"

They are twin poems presenting two opposite nations. In the former, he talks about a female figure that stands for light, mirth, activity and spring. But the latter addresses a lady dressed in black who stands for brooding thoughts, melancholy and solitude. Each poem appreciates what it talks about.

IV. "Paradise Lost"

It is a Christian epic which is composed of supernaturalism; with a hero, undergoing adventures with monsters, etc. in an elevated language and according to an elevated subject matter, and the decorated language of Renaissance period.

Milton's "Paradise Lost" is influenced by Spenser, Virgil and Homer but the story is handled in an individual manner. In this epic Milton tells the story of Adam and Eve's Fall i.e. the first Adam loses paradise.

V. "Paradise Regained"

It is a Biblical story in form of poetry: Christ or the second Adam faces Satan in a desert and is tempted. But he rejects all the earthly values and resists Satan and this way Jesus Christ regains the lost paradise.

VI. "Comus"

It is the title of a masque.

VII. "Samson Agonistus"

It is a closet drama i.e. one written to be read rather than performed.

John Bunyan   (1628 – 1688)

If Milton is a bard of Puritanism, Bunyan is its story writer who inspired a lot of his subsequent story writers. He was the son of a poor Bedfordshire tinker and received only a meager education and then learned his father's craft. When he was 14 years old, he participated in the civil war on the parliament's side. Two years later, he lost his mother and his father remarried. When the war ended he married a young poor girl and they lived happily for 7 years; after that, his wife died, leaving him 4 children one of whom was a blind daughter.

Milton started his new career as a preacher. Despite his poor education, he was talented, fearless and a pious preacher. After the accession of Charles II, he kept on preaching his Puritan ideas despite the dominance of the Anglican Church; consequently, he was imprisoned. Yet, he was a favorable and respected figure in the society and even his gaolers let him leave the jail to attend congregations. Thus he was sent to another prison and was released.

He remarried and his wife petitioned different authorities for her husband's release. Still her husband was arrested and released for several times and eventually he was imprisoned for the rest of his life.

Bunyan presented Christian doctrine in his stories allegorically. His masterpiece is "Pilgrim's Progress". It is the story of an Everyman living in the City of Destruction and is informed that he has to go to the Heavenly City. He undergoes different adventures throughout his journey. Bunyan's second important work is            "Grace Abounding to Its Chief of Sinners", a spiritual autobiography concerning his own sins. It is a simple, clear and allegorical prose.

A Survey to the History of English Literature (II)

The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century   (1660 – 1785)

Charles II returned to his country in 1660. He was 30, a perfect handsome gentleman. Actually and secretly he was an ardent Catholic while his people were protestant and he was the head of an Anglican church. He wore the mask of Anglicanism; he showed it in words but he was Catholic at heart.

During the time of his exile he was wandering about the countries. The kings of other countries especially France protected him financially and he was under the influence of Catholic Church of France. Two years after his return, in 1662 he married Catherine of Braganza, the princess of Portugal. She brought the port of Bombay as her dowry and a lot of cash. Actually, she did not have much of her husband; he was a sensual man and had an army of mistresses but he had no intention to hide them. Except for his pleasure–seeking activities, he was a lazy man and picked up ministers to carry the burden of the government.

As far as the Restoration government policies and economy were concerned, they paid no attention to colonies in Africa, India and America. Before then, the whole economic situation of England was based on commercial activities concerning wool. Now it changed. From these colonies certain other goods came to England; then they were shipped to other countries. As a result, the country became economically secure and prosperous. The prosperity of the country brought about the prosperity of certain class of society that is the wealthy whom the Restoration government supported.

Since Armada, the first clash between the parliament and Queen Elizabeth started. At the beginning of Charles II's return again the clash happened. There were three major reasons for this:

First: Charles II was in agreement with the parliament at the beginning, but he was not that secure on his government and gradually forgot his duties and that brought about certain results. Second: Charles II pretended to be an Anglican. Twice during his reign, he proposed a Declaration of Indulgence i.e. all the religious sects and all the believers of other religions must be free in their beliefs and that means the toleration of other beliefs thus more privileges for Catholics; this disappointed the church. So the church sought a monopoly i.e. sole right to supply or trade in some service as well as religion. But the church could not tolerate Charles' monopoly. Third: After his return, Charles II did some foolish actions which intensified the clash. He gave some privileges to the Royalists who had lost their states and gave their land back. He also started a war with Holland while both countries were Protestant, so gradually the clash took place.

An important incident which took place during Charles II's reign was The Popish Plot.

The Popish Plot

It was believed that a plot against Charles life was planned by Catholics. It is a very suspicious incident since Charles was a Catholic himself. The incident resulted in important consequences. Charles II had many illegitimate children but no legitimate heir by Catherine to come to the throne; so, naturally, his brother James II, another Catholic king came to throne.

When James II came to the throne the atmosphere of crisis intensified. He was the first frank Catholic king after Bloody Mary who openly admitted his Catholicism. The Protestant politicians faced a great danger, so they sought a plot and found a Protestant heir, one of Charles illegitimate children named Duke of Monmouth who was ambitious, brave and good-looking and popular with people. He was supported by Earl of Shaftsbury, one of those politicians who pretended that James had a hand in this plot and was successful. Charles would not allow such manipulation; as a result, Earl of Shaftsbury lost his palace, fled to Holland and died. The Duke of Monmouth was also caught and beheaded after Charles' death and before James II's reign.

Dryden's allegorical satire "Absalom and Achitophel" points to this event. Absalom stands for the Duke of Monmouth but he is indicated as a biblical figure, David's son. Achitophel is also introduced in the place of Earl of Shaftsbury.

The Glorious or Bloodless Revolution   (1688 – 1689)

In spite of the fact that James promised not to attend any persecution, he ruled quite short and he himself was responsible for its shortness for a couple of reasons:

1. He prohibited the Anglican clergies to preach against Catholicism; consequently,                   

    the church was vexed.

2. He brought an army of soldiers around London to threaten the Protestant               

    population.

3. He gave his coreligionists, well-known powerful Catholic officials and important               

    positions and even made some of them the heads of colleges of Cambridge and       

    Oxford.

These brought the disappointment of many powerful officials but people tolerated the situation because James had married a Protestant wife and they looked to the prospective Protestant heirs who were his daughters Mary and Anne. However, matters came to a crisis in 1688 when a son was born to James' second wife who was a Catholic and the prospect of succession of Catholic monarchs menaced the nation. Accordingly they sought a savior.

Secret negotiations paved the way for survival in England of the Dutchman William of Orange at the head of a small armed force. He was the leading champion of Protestantism in the continent; a grandson of Charles I and the husband of James' Protestant daughter, Mary.

William crossed the English Channel and captured the country easily. James II fled to France, a Catholic country. The coming of William and Mary and their settlement as the joint sovereigns of England achieved in 1688 -1689 is known as the Glorious or Bloodless Revolution. From this moment on the powers of the parliament was reaffirmed i.e. the kings had to rule through the parliament.

The Consequences of the Popish Plot   (The Emergence of Whigs and Tories)

After the Popish Plot some of the powerful officials took the side of the church. These groups were Protestants. They made two political parties known as Tories and Whigs. In 1681, Tories supported the king while Whigs were the king's opponents and supported the parliament and advocated the toleration of other religious sects i.e. other dissenters, nonconformists: Catholics and Puritans.

Later on, these two parties became more stable and developed their opposed attitudes on other important issues, for instance economic concern. The Tories were actually older nobility and supported the landed wealth. The Whigs came from new nobility and supported commerce and commercial activities. By and large there was no concern for the poor.

William's Coming to the Throne   (Late 17^th and Early 18^th Centuries)

In this period we face a change in all aspects of life, a change of custom, the way people dressed, what they ate, etc. Coffee and tea were introduced. There was also a change in the language i.e. new words especially technical ones came into existence like the nowadays language. For instance "thee" and "thou" changed into "you" and "me"; "master" and "mistress" changed into "mister" and "Mrs.". There was a movement from simplicity toward luxury.

During the early 18^th century, Religious Toleration (Toleration of Dissenters) was established i.e. pressing people to death and torture for their religious beliefs, was abolished. Now everyone was free to go or not to go to any churches.

The change of custom had also unpleasant consequences. The majority of people were not able to afford the bare necessities of life. People in rags and bare-footed were frequent sights. The life expectancy was under 35 during this period. Only they did not starve. Any kind of opera was suffocated in its origin. Church, landlords and government were united against the poor and the poor's disobedience was called a sin and was punished savagely. This was the glimpse of the life of the poor. The change was not due to the fluctuation of literary fashion. It was deeply rooted in the condition of life of this period.

The Literature of Restoration / The Neo-Classical Period   (1660 – 1785)

Restoration comes after Commonwealth during which we have religious extremism and enthusiasm. Government of Cromwell put a ban on theaters in which works of Shakespeare and Marlow were performed. After restoration this extreme turned to another extreme. The characteristics of restoration dramas are as follows: They were abnormal, cynical and witty and usually concerned with sexual entreaties. The dominant genre of this period is Comic Drama.

Restoration followed a period of civil war and now it was the time of a political stability. Rich people became richer and enjoyed this period of peace. English writers found a similarity between this period and such a period in Roman history. After Julius Caesar was murdered, a civil war started in Rome and took years until another emperor, Augustine came to the throne. During his reign the Romans enjoyed stability and peace and as a result of this, great Roman writers appeared such as Ovid,  Virgil and Horace and they achieved the highest position imagined for a writer.

Restoration was also a period of stability after years of war. Restoration writers recognized the similarity between themselves and Roman writers and tried to go after them who were great models of perfection. During late 17^th and early 18^th centuries, they looked at the classical Greek writers in all aspects of their literary works and also the classical Romans who were under the direct influence of Greek culture. That is why this new literary period is called Neo-Classicism.

 Neo-Classical literary period (1660-1785), falls into 3 periods of about 40 years each: 1. the first one extending to the death of Dryden in 1700, 2. the second one ending with the death of Pope in 1744 and of Swift in 1745, and 3. the third one concluding with the death of Johnson in 1784 and the publication of William Cowper's "The Task" in 1785.

The second influence on the writers of Restoration period was France. Charles II and his followers spent their exile in France and liked French culture very much so; they intended to bring it into English culture. The writers of this period were under the influence of these two cultures but did not imitate them in their works. They took what they required from France, but used it for their own ends.